Environmental Ethics Review of Literature

Environmental Ethics Review of Literature This chapter provides the review of literatures that forms the framework of this study. Reviews of the concepts that underpin this research will help elucidate and justify the major elements under which this study is based on. Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents. It also can be defined as the field of inquiry that addresses the ethical responsibilities of human beings for the natural environment. This field took its name from the 1979 creation of the journal Environmental Ethics. (Botzler Armstrong, 1998) Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It is the field of inquiry that addresses the ethical responsibilities of human beings for the natural environment. It also exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics, ecology and geography. Environmental ethics is that part of applied ethics which examines the moral basis of our responsibility toward the environment. The fundamental questions are the following (Naess, 1973): What are the obligations of the whole of the mankind toward the natural world? How to allocate the benefits and charges deriving from the respect of these obligations? What policies and institutional structures should be established to implement them? The academic field of environmental ethics grew up in response to the work of scientists such as Rachel Carson and events such as the first Earth Day in 1970, when environmentalists started urging philosophers to consider the philosophical aspects of environmental problems. Two papers published in Science had a crucial impact: Lynn Whites The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis (March 1967) and Garrett Hardins The Tragedy of the Commons (December 1968). Also influential was Garrett Hardins later essay called Exploring New Ethics for Survival, as well as an essay by Aldo Leopold in his A Sand County Almanac, called The Land Ethic, in which Leopold explicitly claimed that the roots of the ecological crisis were philosophical (1949). 2.2 Man-nature relationship Nature can be seen as beautiful and harmonious but it also inspires fear in man who has had to fight it in order to survive. Nowadays, nature is threatened by man who has become detached from it. Technology has endowed humans with the power of a major geological agency, which may act on a continental or even planetary scale (e.g. acid rain, photochemical smog, radioactive contamination, stratospheric ozone depletion, climate change). These man-made environmental problems cannot all be solved by technology alone. Changes in human behaviour are necessary, hence the need for codes of conduct based on the ethics of the environment. The relationship between man and nature must be reconsidered. (Bourdeau, 2003) As human population growth, technology, pollution and demands on finite resources begin to tax the earths capacity. A fundamental change in mans attitude toward the environment and most important of all, an ethical basis for the necessary legal and incentives is required for the man to avoid self-destruction in the environment. According to Blackstone (1974), the main cause of environmental crisis is mistaken values and attitudes, which are the attitudes that we can exploit the environment without restrictions, that the production of goods is more important than the people who use them, that nature will provide unlimited resources, that we have no obligation to future generations to conserve resources, that continued increases in human population is desirable and that the right to have as many children as one wants is an inviolate right, that the answer to the problems of technology is more technology, and that gross differences and inequities in the distribution of goods and service s are quite acceptable. The environmental awareness movement which begin in the late 1960s is evidence that peoples attitudes are changing rapidly, and so it would seem that the development of an environmental ethics is but a logical extension of general ethics. 2.3 Environmental Philosophical Perspective There are typically four types of philosophical perspective in environmental ethics, which are technocentrism, anthropocentrism, biocentrism and ecocentrism. Technocentrism and anthropocentrism based on the values centred on technology and human while biocentrism and ecocentrism based on the values centred on ecology. 2.3.1 Technocentrism Technocentrism is the philosophical perspective that meaning values centred on technology. Technocentrics, including imperialists, have absolute faith in technology and industry and firmly believe that humans have control over nature. Although technocentrics may accept that environmental problems do exist, they do not see them as problems to be solved by a reduction in industry. Rather, environmental problems are seen as problems to be solved using science. Indeed, technocentrics see that the way forward for developed and developing countries and the solutions to our environmental problems today lie in scientific and technological advancement. 2.3.2 Anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism is the philosophical perspective asserting that ethical principles apply to humans only, and that human needs and interests are of highest, and even exclusive, value and importance. Thus, concern for nonhuman entities is limited to those entities having values to humans. There are typically two major types of anthropocentrism, which is strong anthropocentrism and weak anthropocentrism. Strong anthropocentrism is characterized by the notion that nonhuman species and natural objects have value only to the extent that they satisfy a felt preference, which is any fulfil able human desire, whether or not it is based on thought and reflection. For weak anthropocentrism, it was distinguished by the affirmation that nonhumans and nature objects can satisfy considered preferable than as well as felt preferences. A considered preference is a human desire or need that is based on careful deliberation and is compatible with a rationality adopted world view, incorporating sound metaphysics, scientific theories, aesthetic values and moral ideals. Thus, weak anthropocentrism value nonhuman entities for more than their use in meeting unreflective human needs. They value them for enriching the human experience. 2.3.3 Biocentrism Biocentrism defined as the belief that all forms of life are equally valuable and humanity is not the centre of existence. In Respect for Nature, Taylor (1986) described the fundamental points of biocentrism. First, Taylor equates the status of human beings with that of animals. He argues that humans and animals share the earth, and should live equally and harmoniously. Second, Taylor says that human and other animal species are interdependent. This rejects the view that humans need animals, or that animals depend upon humans. Third, every living creature is unique, and lives in its own way for its own good, says Taylor. This implies that one species cannot know more about what is good for another species than that species itself. Fourth, Taylor rejects the argument that human beings are inherently superior to animals. But, there is a key problem in biocentrism. This philosophical perspective still pre-ecological, which mean that not really focused on ecosystems, but on individual life forms. 2.3.4 Ecocentrism Ecocentrism is based on the philosophical premise that the natural world has inherent or intrinsic value. There are typically two types of ecocentrism which is the land ethic and deep ecology. Land ethic was first clearly articulated by Aldo Leopold in the late 1940s. The proponents of the land ethic advocate the human responsibility towards the natural world. Proponents of the land ethic advocate a true environmental ethic, valuing nature in and of itself rather than only in relation to its significance for the survival and well-being of humans or other select species. The land ethic implies human responsibility for natural communities. Deep ecology is a more recent ecocentric philosophy. This term was coined in 1974 by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, as a contrast with the notion of shallow ecology; the latter includes all superficial, short-term reform approaches to solving such environmental problems as pollution and resource depletion. Deep ecology involves an intensive questioning of the values and lifestyles that have led to serious environmental problems. 2.4 Related research with environmental philosophical perspective There are many studies have been conducted all around the world on environmental philosophical perspectives. Bjerke, T and Kaltenborn, B.P., (1999) had been conducted a study entitled The relationship of ecocentric and anthropocentric motives to attitudes toward large carnivores in Norway. The target populations in this study consist of three different groups which is sheep farmer, research biologist and wildlife manager. The results showed positive associations between anthropocentrism and negative attitudes toward carnivores, and between ecocentrism and positive attitudes toward carnivores for all three groups. Farmers, relative to the other groups, scored lowest on the concentric and highest on the anthropocentric subscales. Kortenkamp., K.V. and Moore., C.F., (2001), had conducted a study entitle Ecocentrism and anthropocentrism: moral reasoning about ecological common dilemmas to examine some issues in how people extend ethics to the natural environment. The result showed that the presence of information about the impact of ecological damage on the environment, especially a more wild environment, elicited more ecocentric reasoning, while the presence of a social commitment elicited more non environmental moral reasoning. Another study related with environmental philosophical perspective was a study conducted by Casey., P.J. and Scott., K., (2006), entitled Environmental concern and behaviour in an Australian sample within an ecocentric-anthropocentric framework. The result of this study showed that female gender, better education, and being older were associated with higher levels of ecocentric concern for the environment and reporting more ecological behaviours. References Bjerke, T., Kaltenborn, B. P. (1999). The relationship of ecocentric and anthropocentric motives to attitudes toward large carnivores. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 19, 415-421. Blackstone, T. W. (1974). Philosophy and Environmental Crisis: University of the Georgia Press. Botzler, R. G., Armstrong, S. J. (1998). Environmental Ethics: Divergence and Convergence (2nd ed.): McGraw-Hill. Bourdeau, P. (2003). The man nature relationship and environmental ethics. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 72, 9-15. Casey, P. J., Scott, K. (2006). Environmental Concern and Behaviour in an Australian Sample Within an Ecocentric-Anthropocentric Framework. Australian Journal of Psychology, 58(2), 57-67. Kortenkamp, K. V., Moore, C. F. (2001). Ecocentrism and Anthropocentrism: Moral Reasoning About Ecological Commons Dilemmas. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 261-272. Naess, A. (1973). The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement. Inquiry, 16(1-4), 95-100. Taylor, P. (1986). Respect For Nature: Princeton University Press.

The Tv Era :: essays research papers

The TV Era   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The 20th century marked the beginning of a new era - 'the modern age.'; Some of the greatest minds the human race has ever witnessed lived and worked during the last several decades. These 'fathers of technology';, who arrived well ahead of their time, created the world as people know it. Car, airplane, rocket, are only few of the inventions that prepared mankind for the 180 turn. Some of the inventions found their usage in every day's life, such as: radio, toaster, washing machine…and finally, TV. The TV industry started its development with the invention of the first TV set, somewhere in the early 1950's, and has never stopped growing since.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discussion whether or not television is a positive part of modern life, might seem arguable from several different viewpoints. Positively or not, the television has affected the life of almost every human being on the Earth…   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, people who lived before 'the television era'; could not hear the latest news at any time. The only source of news was the papers. However, without any significant technology involved, the newspapers could only report on the local events. On the top of that, usually such news offered information not accurate enough and too old to interest greater percentage of the population. All the people lived at the slower pace, by not knowing what was going on around them. For instance, a trading person who worked in the United States could hardly find out how British economy did. In the early presidential elections, the newspapers didn't inform enough those who worked on the farms. Therefore, they did not have credibility to vote. Nowadays, the TV campaigns allow us to know about every candidate's move and his beliefs and opinions towards foreign and domestic politics. More important than anything, with the television, ordinary people have a chance to keep track of world affairs. Today, an average person can come home from work, take off his shoes, lean back in the chair and turn on the TV. Then, he has the access to information about Bosnia and the children starving in Central Africa, both taking place thousands of miles away. On the other hand, the same guy maybe just wishes to watch The World Cup soccer match, or his favorite soap opera. The possibilities go to infinity. And how do we get the picture on the TV sets as the final product?

Prevention Of A Disease Health And Social Care Essay

The current definition of wellness is â€Å" being sound in organic structure, head or spirit † ( Gordon, 1988 ) . It differs from the traditional definition which defined wellness as â€Å" being free of disease † . Hence both of these definitions include the construct of an person ‘s well being by taking all those steps which can maintain him free of the disease. The thought of function of diet and other preventative steps in disease is non a new one as Hippocrates ( 460 BC – 377 BC ) said â€Å" our nutrient should be our medical specialty. † The same impression was supported by Thomas Edison ( 1847-1931 ) the celebrated discoverer, when he said the â€Å" physician of the hereafter will give no medical specialty, but will involvement her or his patients in the attention of the human frame, in a proper diet, and in the cause and bar of disease † . The bar of a disease includes a figure of factors both at the degree of an single and at the degree of community. It has evolved as an independent subdivision of medical specialty including many subjects such as anthropology, epidemiology, the designation and survey of diseases hypertext transfer protocols: //www.wisegeek.com/what-is-disease-prevention.htm. Harmonizing to figures â€Å" preventable diseases/illness † history for 80 % of the entire load of unwellness and 90 % of the entire wellness attention costs ( hypertext transfer protocol: //preventdisease.com/prevention/prevention.html ) . Furthermore, they account for eight of the nine taking classs of death.A Assorted factors lending towards disease bar are restricting smoke and consumption of intoxicant, a healthy diet, effectual exercising, physical activity and weight control, decrease of emphasis and regular showing and trials ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cd-mc/healthy_living-vie_saine-eng.php ) . In instance of bar of sexual diseases, the steps will include safe sex etc. ( Well, 2010 ) . As justly mentioned by Thomas Edison, an person ‘s nutrient and diet have been recognized to hold a function in wellness and disease ( Branca et al, 2001 ) . Assorted dietetic factors play influential function in most common and of import wellness issues. Harmonizing to WHO, the coronary bosom disease, shot, malignant neoplastic diseases and diabetes mellitus are among the top 10 causes of decease in high-income states ( WHO, 2008 ) . The etiology of these diseases is multifactorial nevertheless, there is some possible for dietetic use ( Branca et al, 2001 ) . This is most applicable in instance of coronary bosom diseases and shot where the dietetic factors play their portion by transition of blood lipoids and their leaning for oxidization. The inclusion of fish oils in diet lessening the opportunities of thrombosis ( Kromhout et al, 2001 ) . In instance of malignant neoplastic diseases, fats, fiber and anti-oxidant vitamins and minerals have been related to development of mali gnant neoplastic disease. Dietary factors account for 30 % of all malignant neoplastic diseases in Western states while 20 % of all malignant neoplastic diseases in developing states ( WHO, 2010a ) . Another important factor that plays a outstanding function in disease bar is the life-style form. Physical activity and exercising are the most of import determiners of life manner form while other factors include smoke and intoxicant etc. ( WHO, 2010a ) . These effects of diet and life manner forms have been widely recognized and this can be shown by the fact that the recommendations on diet and life manner are advised to diminish the hazard of bosom disease by CDC ( 2009 ) and WHO ( 2010b ) . Furthermore, early sensing of some diseases such as cervical showing for cervical malignant neoplastic disease, mammograms for early sensing of chest malignant neoplastic disease, regular monitoring of cholesterin and blood force per unit area for bosom disease besides contribute to disease bar. A survey ( Wannamethee et al, 1998 ) to place the consequence of assorted hazard factors associated with bosom diseases was carried out. It examined the combined consequence of assorted life manner patterns non merely on the survival rates but besides 15 twelvemonth endurance rates with a cardiovascular disease and diabetes free life. It was revealed that a 50 twelvemonth old adult male has an 89 % opportunity of lasting to 65 without developing coronary bosom disease, stroke or diabetes if he has ne'er smoked, is physically active and non fleshy. On the other manus, if he smokes, is inactive and really overweight he merely has a 42 % opportunity. It can be therefore inferred that the control of many of the preventable factors can hold a positive influence on dearly-won and crippling conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplastic disease, diabetes and chronic respiratory diseases ( WHO, 2002 ) . With the addition in the people populating with the chronic conditions for old ages and old ages, these diseases are thought to hold a potency of going the most expensive jobs faced by our wellness attention systems. Hence an effectual and successful bar and direction of these diseases has been identified as indispensable or otherwise chronic conditions pose a menace to all states from a wellness and economic point of view ( WHO, 2002 ) . However, it was recognized that the health care systems do non do the best usage of their available resources to pull off the procedure of disease bar ( WHO, 2002 ) . This has besides been highlighted by others and it was advocated that â€Å" wellness † industry would be better named as â€Å" illness † industry due to its tendency on handling the symptoms of disease once it has been contacted instead than bar of the disease runing from common cold to cancerous conditions ( Pilzer, 2005 cited in hypertext transfer protocol: //elib.kkf.hu/okt_publ/szf_26_09.pdf ) . As a consequence of this, new industry has been developed which is the â€Å" health † industry which focuses on doing people stronger and healthier. All over the universe it is already a $ 200 billion concern with most of the gross coming from dietetic addendums while harmonizing to Pilzer ( 2005 cited in hypertext transfer protocol: //elib.kkf.hu/okt_publ/szf_26_09.pdf ) another extra $ 1 trillion of the economic system will be devoted to wellness merchandises and services. Owing to the load of preventable disease and old deficiency of focal point on disease bar, in 2002 WHO recommended that every wellness attention should include bar support programmes ( WHO, 2002 ) . This recommendation to the full supports Edison ‘s statement and it can be said that his anticipation was right about the hereafter of medical specialty. If patients are consistently provided with all the information about the hazard factors such as baccy, intoxicant, safe sex, healthy nutrients and physical activity. Such information can cut down the long-run load and wellness attention demands dramatically. WHO advocated that in order to advance bar in wellness attention, there is a demand for raising consciousness and advance a alteration in thought of patients, households and wellness attention squads, communities and policy shapers. At primary wellness attention degree, a collaborative direction attack with patients, their households and wellness attention professionals is indi spensable to efficaciously diminish the preventable diseases which contribute much to the load of disease ( WHO, 2002 ) . These programmes promote the entree to preventive wellness attention by the agencies of primary attention doctors. In US, this was achieved by integrating bar into primary wellness attention by managed attention organisations ( MCOs ) ( WHO, 2002 ) . These MCOs can work efficaciously as they have big, chiseled populations and have informations about wellness and wellness attention which let them to turn to the bar steps. Such a programme would hold been about impossible in a disconnected wellness attention bringing system ( Hall, 2005 ) . NHS has besides developed assorted wellness attention preventative programmes for different diseases such as coronary bosom disease, high blood pressure, diabetes and assorted malignant neoplastic diseases. For illustration NHS program includes join forcesing with other bureaus and develop, implement and proctor policies to cut down the hazard factors in the population. This is done by affecting the general practicians and primary attention squads in placing patients with established cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) and advice them to cut down hazard factors. They besides identify the people at hazard of CVD and offer them comprehensive advice ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/Browsable/DH_4902634 ) . Furthermore, testing programmes for chest malignant neoplastic disease and cervical showing are besides runing. Inoculations available for assorted diseases to susceptible persons besides contribute to these preventative programmes. In conformity with Thomas ‘s statement, it is the physician or doctor which plays a cardinal function in emphasizing the preventative steps. However, due to continued disease theoretical account patterns, doctors might be really sabotaging the preventative services ( Hall, 2005 ) . Assorted surveies suggest that there is a deficiency of physician engagement in preventative services and doctors perform 20 % to 60 % of the preventative activities that have been recommended. However, most of the doctors believe that patient instruction about preventative steps and hazard factors is the duty of doctors ( Hall, 2005 ) . In add-on to doctors ‘ function, there is a demand for stairss to be taken at community degree for disease bar. At the degree of community, different disease bar schemes have been developed. These include stairss such as sanitising imbibing H2O, clean life conditions, widespread inoculation programmes. These programmes have proved effectual in communities on a wider graduated table while the physicians or doctors can still concentrate on single patient instruction ( http: //www.wisegeek.com/what-is-disease-prevention.htm ) . In drumhead although preventable diseases contribute significantly to disease load nevertheless they can be prevented. Assorted schemes that can cut down these diseases include healthy diet, cut downing smoke and intoxicant, early sensing and increasing physical activity. Health attention systems can integrate effectual preventative programmes affecting patients, their households, doctors and other wellness attention suppliers.

Write an Essay on Confidentiality and the Boundaries of a...

Boundaries not only reflect a need for physical space, but, our core values, self respect and our need for safety and protection. They are invisible lines that differentiate people from each other. The different forms or types of boundaries include physical, emotional, spiritual, financial, and relational. The formation of boundaries in Counselling, or a helping interaction, is very important. Helping interactions provide people with an opportunity to help deal with their difficulties, whatever they may be. It is a chance to be listened to and understood. As such, the helping relationship is an intimate one. It is built around trust and support and offers the helpee (client), a place free from judgment. Within a helping interaction†¦show more content†¦Thus, boundaries allow the explorative process to continue. As the helpee may be not used to this kind of framework and unaware of the importance of keeping the limits, it becomes helper’s responsibility to set up and manage the boundaries as well as to recognize the dilemmas that are inherent within them. The agreement on the boundaries concerning therapeutic relationship is beneficial for both the helpee and helper. Boundaries preserve the therapeutic relationship by ensuring that a helper understands the need to and can keep separate his personal and professional life. Counsellors, or helpers who are able to maintain healthy boundaries do not carry the problems of their clients around with them during leisure hours. They know how to say no, which allows them to keep a balance in their lives. A helper that takes care of himself and knows where to draw the line is in a position to provide a higher standard of service to his helpees, than a helper who blurs the boundaries between personal and professional relationships and feels overwhelmed as a result. Moreover, by making the distinction between a therapeutic relationship and social relationships, a helper is able to retain a level of objectivity that a friend would struggle with if you went to him with a problem. Your friend may hav e a stake in the outcome of your problems that a helperShow MoreRelatedIssues in Counselling1851 Words   |  8 Pagesexplore the ideas of difference in a multi cultural and diverse society, including the issues that may arise in relation to your own cultural background and how this may impact upon the counselling relationship. 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Topic 3 deals with the key performance indicators of purchasing and supply, such as the relationship between purchasing and supply management and corporate governance, and their impact on social responsibility, ethics, sustainability and risk management; the management of quality in purchasingRead MoreManagement and Study Unit41775 Words   |  168 Pagessuppliers, particularly the various purchasing and sourcing decisions of suppliers, the performance evaluation and selection of suppliers, supplier certification and the various purchaser/supplier relationships. Topic 3 deals with the key performance indicators of purchasing and supply, such as the relationship between purchasing and supply management and corporate governance, and their impact on social responsibility, ethics, sustainability and risk management; the management of quality in purchasing